Encountering the Middle East

Catalogue Entry: Pyxis of al-Mughira

al-Mughira Pyxis Lion-Bull Medallion

al-Mughira Pyxis - Eagle Medallion

Pyxis from Madinat al-Zahra

Cordoban Casket

Morgan Casket

The Pyxis of al-Mughira is an enigmatic ivory relic currently held in the Louvre in Paris, France. It is a small cylindrical container with a height of 15 cm and a width of 8 cm, and is carved from elephant ivory, which was especially prized as a luxurious material by medieval Islamic caliphates.^[i] The exterior of the pyxis is adorned by a variety of intricate vegetal designs and imagery; notable among the pyxis’s four art panels (medallions) are motifs of animals representing royalty and power such as bulls, lions, peacocks, and eagles.^[ii] The first scene on the pyxis displays men gathering eagles’ eggs while being attacked by dogs, whereas the second scene depicts horse riders gathering the fruit of a date tree.^[iii] The third scene next depicts two men of royalty – one representing the Umayyads and the other the Abbasids - seated on either side of a standing third man, a lute player.^[iv]  Lastly, the fourth scene entails a fight between bulls and lions. Besides these four images, the Pyxis of al-Mughira also bears an inscription carved on the base of its lid, called a Kufic. Some words on the inscription are unfortunately lost, as the lid’s metal hinges were oddly placed after the pyxis was fully carved, thereby destroying pieces of the Kufic and making it difficult to interpret fully.^[v]

            A multitude of scholars have accepted the Pyxis’s time of crafting to be around the 10^th century, likely around the year 968 CE. One key piece of evidence for this date lies with the remnants of the pyxis’s Kufic, which not only acknowledges al-Mughira as the son of the caliph ‘Abd al-Rahman III, but also states that the container was “made in the year 357.”^[vi] The crafting date stated on the pyxis might stir confusion in onlookers at first glance, as it is based on the Islamic Calendar, which begins with the Hijra, Muhammad’s pilgrimage to Mecca. The inscribed passage therefore states that at the time, 357 years had passed since Muhammad made the pilgrimage in 622 CE. The ivory composition of the container itself is another crucial detail towards placing a date for the relic’s creation. From the 9^th to the 11^th century CE, elephant ivory expanded in popularity as a luxury good traded almost exclusively between the Middle East and the regions of North Africa and al-Andalus.^[vii] Considering the rarity of ivory along with its smoothness and durability, any possession carved from this material was likely bound to legitimize the owner as a member of the rich and powerful ruling class. Following this, the Pyxis of al-Mughira is one of twenty other known ivory-carved containers possessed by the Spanish Umayyad caliphate during its reign over the al-Andalus region, located in present-day southern Spain. Several of the al-Mughira pyxis’s sister containers also bear in their inscriptions the name “Madinat al-Zahra,” which indicates they typically originated from workshops in the vicinity of Madinat al-Zahra, a palace located in what is now present-day Cordoba.^[viii]

One sister relic, tentatively referred to as the Pyxis from Madinat al-Zahra, is known to have been crafted between the years 969-970 CE (around 359 AH), at least 1 or 2 years after the Pyxis of al-Mughira.^[ix] The common themes of the Madinat al-Zahra pyxis’s designs seem to be the pastimes and power of the Islamic noblemen. These concepts are represented by the images of a falconer, a man being carried by an elephant via palanquin, and another enthroned man being waited on by attendants.^[x]  These designs convey that Islamic noblemen are meant to be highly masculine, through activities such as hunting, as well as being entitled to a lavish lifestyle. Though the lid has suffered heavy damage, much of the Kufic on this Pyxis has also survived; the inscription on the base of the lid addresses the recipient’s name as Ziyad ibn Aflah. Scholarly research has determined Ziyad ibn Aflah to not be a member of the caliphate, but rather a high-ranking police prefect, who operated during al-Hakam II’s reign. ^[xi]This makes the Pyxis from Madinat al-Zahra the only recorded Umayyad-era pyxis not to be received by a member of the noble family. 

Another similar container is the tentatively named Cordoban Casket, which was potentially made around the years 966-968 CE during the Spanish Umayyad dynasty. ^[xii] The Cordoban Casket noticeably differs from the al-Mughira pyxis in that it is rectangular instead of cylindrical. Furthermore, the casket is additionally gilded in bronze and its designs do not conform to the medallion arrangements of other containers made during the Spanish Umayyad era. The casket does however share animal motifs with other pyxides such as lions and falcons, interestingly with hybrid creatures placed symmetrically.^[xiii] Combining the traits of two animals commonly associated with royalty would be essential towards emphasizing the might of an Islamic caliph. 

A final container, the Morgan Casket, was crafted between the 11^th and 12^th centuries, this time within the Fatimid Empire in present-day Sicily.^[xiv]  Like the Cordoban Casket, this container also deviates from the Pyxis of al-Mughira due to its rectangular build. Additionally, while the imagery on the Morgan Casket still aims to portray the noblemen’s hobbies, it also depicts the daily lives of the caliphate court’s women. Male figures are positioned at the corners of the container with swords, as if going to hunt beasts or go to war, whereas a single female figure is depicted on the lid, sitting on top of a camel.^[xv] The isolation of the woman from the male figures essentially reaffirms traditional gender roles: whereas Islamic noblemen must commit themselves to acts of bravery and aggression, Islamic court women must remain peaceful and protected from the outside world’s horrors and strife.

            Scholars and historians at present continue to disagree over the exact intended purpose of the Pyxis of al-Mughira, as well as the identity of the ones who commissioned its crafting. It is possible that the Pyxis, like many other luxuries presented by the Umayyad court, would have been gifted around ‘Eid al-Fitr, potentially during a ceremony commemorating the ascension of a new caliph.^[xvi] The relic is also popularly thought to have once been a container for jewels and aromatics such as camphor for the personal enjoyment of a royal court member; this is however difficult to prove as the container’s insides contain no known remnants of luxurious goods or substances.^[xvii] Scholars have proposed various theories to identify those who may have commissioned the pyxis for the prince al-Mughira, though given the luxurious nature of the pyxis it is widely assumed to be a member of the court of ‘Abd al-Rahman III. Around the time of the relic’s debut, al-Mughira had become embroiled in an ascension dispute with his nephew, Hisham, following the deaths of ‘Abd al-Rahman III and his successor al-Hakam, who was Hisham’s late father. Taking this conflict into account, some scholars proposed that the potential commissioners would have had political motives, such as garnering support for al-Mughira’s ascension to the caliphate in the case of the eunuch Fa’iq al-Mustansiri al-Nizami, or opposing his ascension, in the case of Ibn Abi-Amir.^[xviii] In the latter scenario, Ibn Abi-Amir is suggested to have commissioned the relic as a veiled warning to al-Mughira to avoid seeking the throne, especially by including the imagery of dogs attacking men gathering eagle eggs, the latter of whom would represent royalty. Other possible patrons, particularly al-Mughira’s mother al-Mushtaq, were suggested to have no ulterior motives other than preparing and presenting a coming-of-age gift to the prince; however, despite the riches ascribed to women of the Cordoban court, it seems unlikely that al-Mushtaq would have had the power to personally commission the gift herself on account of traditional gender roles remaining absolute.^[xix]

             When analyzed through the traditions of gift-giving in Islamic history, the Pyxis of al-Mughira could be seen as an example of a present intended to showcase the political might and responsibilities of the caliph. Although its intended message and purpose for al-Mughira are still passionately debated today, this pyxis, along with similar containers made during the reign of the Spanish Umayyads, were typically carved with images that were in one sense symbolic of royalty and high-class living, but also indicative of the expectations for up-and-coming leaders in an Islamic nation. Additionally, when compared to the Pyxis from Madinat al-Zahra, as well as the Cordoban and Morgan Caskets, the Pyxis of al-Mughira serves to paint a picture of general Islamic culture, with a primary focus on reinforcing the traditional male and female roles of Islamic societies. The use of ivory containers such as the Pyxis of al-Mughira furthermore did not stop at the borders of al-Andalus, as other Islamic kingdoms such as the Fatimids continued to create their own luxurious pyxides. Any Islamic nation could distribute pyxides within their own courts, as well as to certain favorable individuals and foreign nations, such as the North African Berbers – the latter of which would be essential towards diplomacy, cultural exchange, and political alliance-building.^[xx] Hence, while it was a luxury exclusively known to the Cordoban Umayyads in its time, the Pyxis of al-Mughira can still be associated with general medieval Islamic communities, as it and other pyxides allowed a caliph to flaunt his wealth and power over the populace while maintaining respect from members of his court.

Bibliography

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Andrews, Emily. “Cordoban Casket.” Art and Architecture of the Islamic World, April 25, 2017. https://arth27501sp2017.courses.bucknell.edu/cordoban-casket/. 

Andrews, Emily. “Morgan Casket.” Art and Architecture of the Islamic World, April 25, 2017. https://arth27501sp2017.courses.bucknell.edu/morgan-casket/. 

Andrews, Emily. “Pyxis from Madinat Al-Zahra.” Art and Architecture of the Islamic World, April 25, 2017. https://arth27501sp2017.courses.bucknell.edu/pyxis-from-madinat-al-zahra/. 

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Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf, Hendrik W. Dey, and Paolo Squatriti. “The Al-Mughīra Pyxis,: Spain (Probably Cordoba), 967–68.” Essay. In Fifty Early Medieval Things: Materials of Culture in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2019. 

Macaulay, Dr. Elizabeth. “Pyxis of Al-Mughira.” Smarthistory. Accessed November 20, 2022.https://smarthistory.org/pyxis-of-al-mughira/. 

Makariou, Sophie. “The Al-Mughīra Pyxis and Spanish Umayyad Ivories: Aims and Tools of Power.” Umayyad Legacies, 2010, 313–35. https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004184749.i-560.78. 

“Pyxis of Al-Mughira.” Qantara. Accessed November 20, 2022. https://www.qantara-med.org/public/show_document.php?do_id=1042&lang=en.